Frederick Winslow Taylor Essay Example for Free

Frederick Winslow Taylor EssayFrederick Winslow Taylor (March 20, 1856 March 21, 1915) was an American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial qualification.1 He is regarded as the experience of scientific focus and was one of the first management consultants.2 Taylor was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and his ideas, broadly conceived, were highly influential in the industrial Era. or passed the Harvard entrance examinations with honors. However, due allegedly to rapidly deteriorating eyesight, Taylor chose quite a different path. Instead of attending Harvard, Taylor became an apprentice patternmaker and machinist, gaining shop-floor experience at Enterprise hydraulic Works in Philadelphia (a pump-manufacturing company whose proprietors were friends of the Taylor family). He left his apprenticeship for six calendar months and represented a group of New England machine-tool manufacturers at Philadelphias centennial exposition.Taylor f inished his four-year apprenticeship and in 1878 became a machine-shop jackfruit at Midvale firebrand Works. At Midvale, he was quickly promoted to time clerk, journeyman machinist, gang boss all over the lathe hands, machine shop foreman, research director, and last chief engineer of the works ( slice maintaining his position as machine shop foreman). Taylors fast promotions probably reflected not only his talent but also his familys race with Edward Clark, part owner of Midvale brand. (Edward Clarks son Clarence Clark, who was also a omnibus at Midvale Steel, married Taylors sister.) Early on at Midvale, working as a manual laborer and machinist, Taylor recognized that workmen were not working their machines, or themselves, n other(a) as hard as they could (which at the time was called soldiering) and that this resulted in high labor costs for the company. When he became a foreman he expected more output from the workmen and in order to determine how ofttimes work should properly be expected he began to train and analyze the productivity of both the men and the machines (although the word productivity was not used at the time, and the applied science of productivity had not insofar been substantial).His focus on the human component of production eventually became Scientific charge, while the focus on the machine component led to his famous metal-cutting and materials innovations. art object Taylor worked at Midvale, he and Clarence Clark won the first tennis doubles tournament in the 1881 US National Championships, the precursor of the US Open.1 Taylor became a student of Stevens show of Technology, studying via correspondence5 and obtaining a degree in mechanical engineering in 1883. On May 3, 1884, he married Louise M. Spooner of Philadelphia. From 1890 until 1893 Taylor worked as a general manager and a consulting engineer to management for the Manufacturing Investment Company of Philadelphia, a company that operated large paper mills in Ma ine and Wisconsin.He spent time as a plant manager in Maine. In 1893, Taylor opened an independent consulting practice in Philadelphia. His melodic line nib read Consulting Engineer Systematizing Shop Management and Manufacturing Costs a Specialty. Through these consulting experiences, Taylor perfected his management out downslope. In 1898 he joined Bethlehem Steel in order to solve an expensive machine-shop capacity problem. As a result, he and Maunsel White, with a team of assistants, developed high speed steel, paving the bearing for giganticly increased mass production. Taylor was forced to leave Bethlehem Steel in 1901 aft(prenominal) discord with new(prenominal) managers.After leaving Bethlehem Steel, Taylor focused the rest of his career on publicly promoting his management and machining methods through lecturing, writing, and consulting. In 1910, owe to the easterly Rate Case, Frederick Winslow Taylor and his Scientific Management methodologies become famous worldwid e. In 1911, Taylor introduced his The Principles of Scientific Management paper to the American mechanical engineering society, eight historic period after his Shop Management paper. On October 19, 1906, Taylor was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Science by the University of Pennsylvania.6 Taylor eventually became a professor at the Tuck aim of Business at Dartmouth College.7 In early spring of 1915 Taylor caught pneumonia and died, one day after his fifty-ninth birthday, on March 21, 1915. He was buried in West ribbon Hill Cemetery, in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania.WorkTaylor was a mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. Taylor is regarded as the father of scientific management, and was one of the first management consultants and director of a famous self-coloured. In Peter Druckers description, Frederick W. Taylor was the first man in recorded history who deemed work deserving of systematic observation and study. On Taylors scientific management re sts, above all, the tremendous surge of affluence in the last seventy-five years which has lifted the working masses in the developed countries well above any level recorded before, even for the well-to-do. Taylor, though the Isaac Newton (or perhaps the Archimedes) of the science of work, laid only first foundations, however. Not much has been added to them since even though he has been dead all of sixty years.8 Taylors scientific management consisted of four principles 1.Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the undertakings.2.Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves. 3.Provide Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that workers discrete task (Montgomery 1997 250). 4.Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks. Future US ultimate Court justice Louis Brandeis coined the term scientific management in the course of his argument for the Eastern Rate Case before the Interstate Commerce kick in 1910.Brandeis argued that railroads, when governed according to Taylors principles, did not need to raise rates to increase wages. Taylor used Brandeiss term in the title of his monograph The Principles of Scientific Management, freeed in 1911. The Eastern Rate Case propelled Taylors ideas to the forefront of the management agenda. Taylor wrote to Brandeis I drive home rarely seen a new movement started with such great momentum as you have given this one. Taylors approach is also often referred to as Taylors Principles, or, frequently disparagingly, as Taylorism.Managers and workersTaylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system It is only through oblige standardization of methods, enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation tha t this faster work can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and enforcing this cooperation rests with management alone.9 Workers were supposed to be incapable of understanding what they were doing. According to Taylor this was true even for rather simple tasks. I can say, without the slightest hesitation, Taylor told a congressional committee, that the science of handling pig-iron is so great that the man who is physically able to handle pig-iron and is sufficiently phlegmatic and stupid to choose this for his occupation is rarely able to comprehend the science of handling pig-iron.10 Taylor believed in transferring control from workers to management.He set out to increase the distinction between mental (planning work) and manual labor (executing work). Detailed plans specifying the job, and how it was to be done, were to be formulated by management and communicated to the workers.11 The introduction of his system was often resented by workers and provok ed numerous collide withs. The strike at Watertown Arsenal led to the congressional investigation in 1912. Taylor believed the laborer was worthy of his hire, and pay was linked to productivity. His workers were able to earn substantially more than those under conventional management,12 and this earned him enemies among the owners of factories where scientific management was not in use.Propaganda techniquesTaylor promised to manufacture labor and capital.With the triumph of scientific management, unions would have nothing left to do, and they would have been cleansed of their most evil feature the restriction of output. To underscore this idea, Taylor demeanored the myth that thither has never been a strike of men working under scientific management, trying to give it credibility by constant repetition. In similar fashion he incessantly linked his proposals to shorter hours of work, without bothering to produce evidence of Taylorized firms that reduced working hours, and he revis ed his famous tale of Schmidt carrying pig iron at Bethlehem Steel at least three times, obscuring some aspects of his study and stressing others, so that each successive version made Schmidts exertions more impressive, more voluntary and more honor to him than the last. Unlike Harrington Emerson, Taylor was not a charlatan, but his ideological message required the suppression of all evidence of workers dissent, of coercion, or of any human motives or aspirations other than those his vision of progress could encompass.13Management theoryTaylor thought that by analyzing work, the One Best Way to do it would be found. He is most remembered for developing the stop watch time study, which combined with Frank Gilbreths motion study methods later becomes the field of time and motion study. He would break a job into its component separate and measure each to the hundredth of a minute. One of his most famous studies involved digs. He noticed that workers used the same shovel for all mater ials. He determined that the most effective load was 21 lb, and found or designed shovels that for each material would scoop up that amount.He was generally unsuccessful in getting his concepts applied and was dismissed from Bethlehem Steel. Neverthe slight, Taylor was able to convince workers who used shovels and whose compensation was tied to how much they produced to adopt his advice about the optimum way to shovel by breaking the movements down into their component elements and recommending better ways to perform these movements. It was largely through the efforts of his disciples (most notably H.L. Gantt) that industry came to implement his ideas. Moreover, the book he wrote after parting company with Bethlehem Steel, Shop Management, sold well.Relations with ASMETaylors own written works were designed for presentation to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). These include Notes on Belting (1894), A Piece-Rate System (1895), Shop Management (1903), Art of Cuttin g Metals (1906), and The Principles of Scientific Management (1911). Taylor was president of the ASME from 1906 to 1907. While president, he tried to implement his system into the management of the ASME but was met with much resistance. He was only able to reorganize the publications department and then only partially. He also forced out the ASMEs long-time secretary, Morris L. Cooke, and replaced him with Calvin W. Rice.His upgrade as president was trouble-ridden and marked the beginning of a period of internal dissension within the ASME during the Progressive Age.14 In 1911, Taylor collected a number of his articles into a book-length manuscript which he submitted to the ASME for publication. The ASME formed an ad hoc committee to review the text. The committee included Taylor allies such as pile Mapes Dodge and Henry R. Towne. The committee delegated the report to the editor of the American Machinist, Leon P. Alford. Alford was a critic of the Taylor system and the report was n egative. The committee modified the report slightly, but accepted Alfords recommendation not to publish Taylors book. Taylor angrily withdrew the book and published Principles without ASME approval.15 Taylor published the trade book himself in 1912.PatentsTaylor authored 42 patents.16Taylors influenceUnited StatesOne of Carl G. Barths speed-and-feed drop off rules.A Gantt chart.Carl G. Barth helped Taylor to develop speed-and-feed-calculating slide rules to a previously unknown level of usefulness. Similar aids are still used in machine shops today. Barth became an early consultant on scientific management and later taught at Harvard. H. L. Gantt developed the Gantt chart, a visual aid for scheduling tasks and displaying the flow of work. Harrington Emerson introduced scientific management to the railroad industry, and proposed the dichotomy of staff versus line employees, with the former advising the latter. Morris Cooke adapted scientific management to educational and municipal o rganizations. Hugo Mnsterberg created industrial psychology.Lillian Gilbreth introduced psychology to management studies. Frank Gilbreth (husband of Lillian) discovered scientific management while working in the construction industry, eventually developing motion studies independently of Taylor. These logically complemented Taylors time studies, as time and motion are two sides of the efficiency improvement coin. The two fields eventually became time and motion study. Harvard University, one of the first American universities to offer a graduate degree in business management in 1908, based its first-year curriculum on Taylors scientific management. Harlow S. Person, as dean of Dartmouths Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance, promoted the teaching of scientific management. James O. McKinsey, professor of accounting at the University of Chicago and founder of the consulting firm bearing his name, advocated budgets as a means of assuring accountability and of measuring perfor mance.FranceIn France, Le Chatelier translated Taylors work and introduced scientific management throughout government owned plants during World War I. This influenced the French theorist Henri Fayol, whose 1916 Administration Industrielle et Gnrale show organizational structure in management. In the classic General and Industrial Management Fayol wrote that Taylors approach differs from the one we have outlined in that he examines the firm from the bottom up. he starts with the most elemental units of activity the workers actions then studies the effects of their actions on productivity, devises new methods for making them more efficient, and applies what he learns at lower levels to the hierarchy17 He suggests that Taylor has staff analysts and advisors working with individuals at lower levels of the organization to identify the ways to improve efficiency. According to Fayol, the approach results in a negation of the principle of unity of command.18Fayol criticized Taylors ope rational management in this way In Shop Management, Taylor said19 the most marked outward characteristics of functional management lies in the fact that each workman, instead of advent in direct contact with the management at one point only, receives his daily orders and help from eight different bosses these eight were (1) route clerks, (2) instruction card men, (3) cost and time clerks, (4) gang bosses, (5) speed bosses, (6) inspectors, (7) repair bosses, and the (8) shop disciplinarian. 19 This, Fayol said, was an unworkable situation, and that Taylor must have somehow reconciled the dichotomy in some way not described in Taylors works.SwitzerlandIn Switzerland, the American Edward Albert Filene established the International Management Institute to spread information about management techniques. USSR In the Soviet sexual union, Vladimir Lenin was very impressed by Taylorism, which he and Joseph Stalin sought to incorporate into Soviet manufacturing. Taylorism and the mass pr oduction methods of Henry Ford thus became highly influential during the early years of the Soviet Union. Nevertheless Frederick Taylors methods have never really taken root in the Soviet Union.20 The voluntaristic approach of the Stakhanovite movement in the 1930s of mount individual records was diametrically opposed to Taylors systematic approach and proved to be counter-productive.21 The stop-and-go of the production process workers having nothing to do at the beginning of a month and storming during illegal extra shifts at the end of the month which prevailed even in the 1980s had nothing to do with the successfully taylorized plants e.g., of Toyota which are characterized by continuous production processes (heijunka) which are continuously improved (kaizen).22The easy availability of replacement labor, which allowed Taylor to choose only first-class men, was an important condition for his systems success.23 The situation in the Soviet Union was very different. Because work is so unrhythmic, the rational manager will hire more workers than he would need if supplies were even in order to have seemly for storming. Because of the continuing labor shortage, managers are happy to pay needed workers more than the norm, either by issuing false job orders, assigning them to higher learning grades than they deserve on merit criteria, giving them loose piece rates, or making what is supposed to be incentive pay, premia for good work, effectively part of the usual wage. As Mary Mc Auley has suggested under these circumstances piece rates are not an incentive wage, but a way of justifying giving workers any(prenominal) they should be getting, no matter what their pay is supposed to be according to the official norms.24 Taylor and his theories are also referenced (and put to practice) in the 1921 dystopian raw We by Yevgeny Zamyatin.CanadaIn the early 1920s, the Canadian textile industry was re-organized according to scientific management principles. In 1928, w orkers at Canada Cotton Ltd. in Hamilton, Ontario went on strike against newly introduced Taylorist work methods. Also, Henry Gantt, who was a close associate of Taylor, re-organized the Canadian Pacific Railway.25 With the prevalence of US branch plants in Canada and close economic and ethnical ties between the two countries, the sharing of business practices, including Taylorism, has been common.Criticism of TaylorManagement theorist Henry Mintzberg is highly critical of Taylors methods. Mintzberg states that an obsession with efficiency allows measureable benefits to overshadow less quantifiable social benefits completely, and social values get left behind.26 Harry Bravermans work, Labor and Monopoly Capital The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century, published in 1974 was critical of scientific management. This work pioneered the field of Labor Process Theory. Taylors methods have also been challenged by socialist intellectuals.The argument put forward relates to progressi ve defanging of workers in the workplace and the subsequent degradation of work as management, powered by capital, uses Taylors methods to render work repeatable, precise yet monotonous and skill-reducing.27 James W. Rinehart argued that Taylors methods of transferring control over production from workers to management, and the division of labor into simple tasks, intensified the alienation of workers that had begun with the factory system of production around 1870-1890.28 Tennis accomplishmentsTaylor was also an accomplished tennis player. unitedly with Clarence Clark he won the inaugural United States National tennis doubles championship at Newport Casino in 1881 defeating Alexander Van Rensselaer and Arthur Newbold in straight sets.1

Assessment and grading criteria Essay Example for Free

Assessment and grading criteria Essay unit of measurement 1 Fundamentals of ScienceAssessment and grading criteriaTo procure a legislate nock the evidence must order that the learner is satisfactory to To achieve a merit grade the evidence must show that, in addition to the tend criteria, the learner is able to To achieve a distinction grade the evidence must show that, in addition to the pass and merit criteria, the learner is able to P1outline the key features of the periodic postp angiotensin-converting enzyme, atomic structure and chemical attach M1brelate the key features of the periodic table to the conclusions drawn from the working activities D1v exempt how metre solutions and titrations be prepared in industry P2vdemonstrate practically the ability to prepare chemical solutions and test their accuracysee moreanalyse factors that offer to the wellbeing of individualsScenarioYou are working as a scientist for Edvisprog a company producing visual aids for educati on. The team is currently working on a web-based program to help students translate the key features of the periodic table and information to guide students to help the t separatelying and understanding of the use of titrations. You have to produce word documents or powerpoint presentations that get out provide the information for the web-based software.RememberDuring this (and other assignments) credit cannot be given for a platcopied from the internet unless, (1) It is referenced and (2) You have interpreted the diagram in some way, for example, added your own labels or further described the concept conveyed in the diagram. line of work 1 Chemical Bonding and the Periodic TableIn this task you have to describe atomic structure, outline the key features of the periodic table and describe chemical bondingDraw a diagram of a Calcium atom, label the key components of the atom. P1iThe periodic table contains over 100 different elements in a specific order. Describe how the ato ms in the periodic table are arranged. You will need to make reference to (a) separates, (b) periods, (c) metals and non-metals, (d) solids/liquids/gases. Choose three different elements and explain why each is in a particular group / period P1iiIonic, covalent and hydrogen are the three main types of chemical bonding. Draw a series of diagrams, with explanations to outline the process involved in each type. P1iiiTask 2 Volumetric AnalysisThis task will require you to make a Standard Solution, this is a solution of known chroma. You will make a solution of atomic number 11 carbonate. The strength of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is usually measured in moles. A one molar (1M) solution kernel one mole of substance (solute) per litre of solution. A mole is the molecular mass of a substance in grams.To calculate the molecular mass, the atomic slew of all the atoms in the molecule need to be added together. For example, the sodium carbonate molecule consists of one atom each of sodium (Na), carbon (C), and oxygen (O). Their various(prenominal) atomic weights are Na 23,C 12 and O 16, so the molecular weight, is 23 + 23+ 12 + 16 + 16 + 16 = 106. Thus 106 grams of Na2CO3 equals one mole of Na2CO3, and a 1 molar solution of Na2CO3will contain 106 grams of Na2CO3chemical, per litre of water.Using all the safety measures required, make a Standard Solution of sodiumcarbonate. It can be any strength you like (within reason) but you must know the strength exactly.This part of the task will be assessed by the teacher.P2iYou will now use your standard solution to calculate the strength of a sample of HCl (Hydrochloric Acid).Procedure1. Rinse all equipment with distilled water2. Using a pipette add 25 cm3 of Na2CO3 to a conical flask3. Add 3 or 4 drops of phenolphthalein. The solution will turn pink. 4. Fill the burette with Hydrochloric acid.5. Add acid to the alkali, note how much acid is needed to neutralise the sodium carbonate, the solution will turn clear (to the n earest 1cm3) 6. Repeat the look into a further three times, this time being accurate to 0.1 cm3 7. Take the average of the acid needed (from the three experiments in the previous step).P2iiCalculate the strength of the acid using the following informationNa2CO3 + HCl NaHCO3 + NaClAt equilibrium Moles of Na2CO3 = Moles of HCl (as they react in a 11 ratio) meter of HCl (moles per litre) x Volume of HCl (litres) = Molarity of Na2CO3 (moles per litre) x Volume of Na2CO3 (litres)Molarity of HCl (moles per litre) = Molarity of Na2CO3 (moles per litre) x Volume of Na2CO3 (litres or ml)Volume of HCl (litres or ml)P2iiiM1iTask 3 Further CalculationsThis task requires you to further understand and describe the molecular changes from the previous experiment. The experiment reacted Na2CO3 with HCl to make NaCl and H2O. 1. Explain what makes HCl an acid/2. Explain what makes Na2CO3 an alkali, when dissolved in water? The diagram of Sodium carbonate may help you to explain this3. Why does the hydrogen (H) form a positive ion in a hydrochloric acid solution? 4. When acids and alkalis react they form a salt, explain why a salt (in this case NaCl) is a very stable compound? 5. Explain why Sodium is in group 1, period 3 and Chlorine is in group 7, period 3. M1iiExplain in detail how you prepared your base solution, including the calculations. D1iTask 4 Titrations in IndustryStandard solutions are used in the chemical industry to measure and check the strength of chemicals. One particular example is the conversion of WVO (waste vegetable oil) into biofuel for diesel engines. The pH of WVO involve to be altered so it is approximately 8.5, which is the same as normal diesel.Explain how the pH of WVO is measured in an industrial setting and why the pH must be accurately determined. The following websites may be usefulhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titrationhttp//alternativefuels.about.com/od/biodiesel/a/bdtitration.htm D1iiEdexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science (Foren sic Science)Name. Unit 01 Fundamentals of ScienceAssignment 01-01, Volumetric AnalysisUnit 1 Fundamentals of ScienceAssessment and grading criteriaTo achieve a pass grade the evidence must show that the learner is able to To achieve a merit grade the evidence must show that, in addition to thepass criteria, the learner is able to To achieve a distinction grade the evidence must show that, in addition to the pass and merit criteria, the learner is able to P1outline the key features of the periodic table, atomic structure and chemical bonding M1relate the key features of the periodic table to the conclusions drawn from the practical activities D1explain how standard solutions and titrations are prepared in industry P2demonstrate practically the ability to prepare chemical solutions and test their accuracyMarking GridTask 1 Chemical Bonding and the Periodic TableP1iLabelled diagram of atomYes / NoP1iiKey features of periodic tableYes / NoP1iiiKey features of chemical bondingYes / No FeedbackTask 2 Volumetric AnalysisP2iExperiment conducted safelyYes / NoP2iiBasic results from experiment obtainedYes / NoP2iii/M1iMolarity of HCl calculatedYes / NoFeedbackTask 3 Further CalculationsM1iiQuestions answered about acids, bases and the periodic table Yes / NoD1iExplained how standard solution was made, including calculations Yes / NoFeedbackTask 4 Titrations in IndustryD1iiDescribe the titration of WVO and the posterior implications Yes / NoFeedbackCriteria AwardedP1P2M1D1DateStudent Response to FeedbackDate..View as multi-pages// oo++)t+=e.charCodeAt(o).toString(16)return t,a=function(e)e=e.match(/Ss1,2/g)for(var t=,o=0o e.lengtho++)t+=String.fromCharCode(parseInt(eo,16))return t,d=function()return studymoose.com,p=function()var w=window,p=w.document.location.protocolif(p.indexOf(http)==0)return pfor(var e=0e

Endosymbiotic Theory of Eukaryotic Cell Development

Endosymbiotic Theory of Eukaryotic Cell DevelopmentAbstractThe defining feature of eucaryotic kioskphones is that they tally tissue layer-bound organelles and a true nucleus. The endosymbiotic theory is based upon the idea that eukaryotic cells evolved in steps beginning with the static incorporation of chemo-organotrophic and phototrophic symbionts from the field of honor bacteria. This essay reviewed the evidence that alimentations this theory. subsequently investigating the molecular(a), physiologic and morphological evidence, it is almost certain that chloroplasts and mitochondria ar from the domain bacteria, and that many of the genes required for the survival of these organelles atomic number 18 contained at heart the nuclear DNA of the eukaryotic cell rather than the organelles make independent DNA. It is for this reason that I believe that endosymbiosis was the put to work whereby eukaryotes began to form and evolve. It was give that the genome of a protozoan, Reclinomonas, contained all the protein-coding found in dated mitochondrial genomes, providing support for the speculative process of endosymbiotic gene move out. The hydrogen possible action seems to be the most likely scenario for the formation of eukaryotes, which explains the need for compartmentalisation with increasing host genome size to modify efficiency of function throughout the cell, and the chimeric nature of eukaryotes.IntroductionBased upon data collected from slow decaying radioactive isotopes, Earth is thought to grant organise approximately 4.55 billion years ago. From this time of origin, a continual process of geological and physical change has occurred, which created conditions leading to the origin of life about 4 billion years ago. Life is thought to have undergone the process of evolution, defined as DNA sequence change and the inheritance of that change, often under the selective pressures of a changing environment. (1) Microfossil evidence suggests th at unicellular eukaryotes arose on Earth approximately 2 billion years ago, after the development of an oxic environment and the invention of respiratory metabolism in cyanobacteria. This timing infers that the availability of oxygen was a large influence on the biological evolution that led to the emergence of Eukarya. (1)The defining feature of eukaryotes is the presence of a well-defined nucleus within each cell. (2) Typical eukaryotic cells contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles enclosed by an outer plasma membrane these organelles are organised into compartmentalised structures which have their own function(s) within the cell, often working together with other organelles to complete snappy biological processes. This compartmentation in cells is essential in organisms as it allows differing compositions of nutrients to exist inside each compartment as opposed to outside, creating perfect conditions for biochemical reactions to occur.(3) The differences between eukar yotes and prokaryotes are shown in Table 1Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells and are most c erstwhilentrated in cells associated with active processes, such as muscle cells which constantly require energy for muscle contraction. The two surrounding membranes that encompass a mitochondrion differ in function and composition, creating distinct compartments within the organelle. The outer membrane is regular in appearance and composed of proteins and lipids, in roughly equal measure, whilst the outer membrane contains porin proteins rendering it more permeable. The upcountry membrane is only freely permeable to oxygen, pissing and carbon dioxide it contains many infoldings, or cristae, that protrude into the central matrix space, significantly increasing the surface area and grownup it an irregular shape. As can be seen in Figure 1, mitochondria contain ribosomes and have their own genetic material, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), s eparate from the nuclear DNA. (4)Mitochondria are the precept sites of ATP production- in a process known as aerophilic phosphorylation. Products of the Krebs cycle, NADH + H+ and FADH2, are carried forward to the electron transport chain (ETC) and are oxidized to NAD+ and FAD, releasing hydrogen atoms. These hydrogen atoms split to pee protons and electrons, and the electrons are passed down the ETC between electron carriers, losing energy at each level. This energy is apply by pumping the protons into the intermembranal space ca use an electrochemical gradient between the intermembranal space and the mitochondrial matrix. The protons diffuse down the electrochemical gradient through specific channels on the stalked particles of the cristae, where ATPsynthase located at the stalked particles, supplies electrical potential energy to convert ADP and inorganic phosphate to ATP. In mammalian cells, enzymes in the inner mitochondrial membrane and central matrix space carry out the t erminal stages of glucose and fatty acid oxidation in the process of ATP synthesis. Mitochondria also count an important role in the regulation of ionised calcium concentration within cells, largely due to their ability to accumulate substantial amounts of calcium. (3)(5)Chloroplasts are membrane-bound organelles found within photosynthetic eukaryotes. Chloroplasts are ring by a double membrane, the outer membrane creation regular in appearance whilst the inner membrane contains infoldings to form an interconnected system of disc-shaped sacs named thylakoids. These are often arranged in to stacks called grana. Enclosed within the inner membrane of the chloroplast is a fluid-filled region called the stroma, containing water and the enzymes necessary for the light-independent reactions (the Calvin cycle) in photosynthesis. The thylakoid membrane is the site of the light dependent reactions in photosynthesis, and contains photosynthetic pigments (such as chlorophyll and carotenoids ) and electron transport chains. Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, contain ribosomes and their own independent DNA (ctDNA), which is central to the theory of endosymbiosis. The structure of a typical chloroplast is shown by Figure 2Radiant energy is trapped by photosynthetic pigments and utilise to excite electrons in order to produce ATP by photophosphorylation. The light dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane (Photosystem II or P680) and ultimately, these reactions produce the ATP and NADPH required for photosynthesis to continue in the stroma (where Photosystem I or P700 is located). A series of light independent reactions occur within the stroma producing carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using ATP and NADPH.The most supported hypothesis (put forward by Lynn Margulis) for the origin of the eukaryotic cell is that of endosymbiosis which is suitably named as symbiosis occurs when two different species wellbeing from living and working together. When one org anism actually lives inside the other its called endosymbiosis.(6) The endosymbiosis hypothesis states that the modern, or organelle-containing eukaryotic cell evolved in steps through the stable incorporation of chemo-organotrophic and phototrophic symbionts from the domain Bacteria. In other words, chloroplasts and mitochondria of modern-day eukaryotes arose from the stable incorporation into a second type of cell of a chemoorganotrophic bacterium, which underwent facultative aerobic respiration, and a cyanobacterium, which carried out oxygenic photosynthesis. The beneficial association between the engulfed prokaryote and eukaryote would have given the eukaryote an advantage over neighbouring cells, and the theory is that the prokaryote and eukaryote disconnected the ability to live independently. (1)Oxygen was an important factor in endosymbiosis and in the rise of the eukaryotic cell through its production in photosynthesis by the tooth root of the chloroplast and its consumpt ion in energy-producing metabolic processes by the ancestor of the mitochondrion. It is worth noting that eukaryotes underwent rapid evolution, most probably due to their ability to exploit sunlight for energy and the great yields of energy released by aerobic respiration. Support for the endosymbiosis hypothesis can be found in the physiology and metabolism of mitochondria and chloroplasts, as well as the structure and sequence of their genomes.(1) Similarities between modern-day chloroplasts, mitochondria, and prokaryotes relative to eukaryotes are shown in table 2Molecular licenceWhen Margulis proposed the endosymbiotic theory, she predicted that if the organelles really were prokaryotic symbionts, they would contain their own independent DNA. This was proven to be the case in the 1980s for mitochondria and chloroplasts.(7)Furthermore, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was found to have a proportionally higher ratio of guanine-cytosine base pairs than in eukaryotic nuclear DNA, as foun d in bacteria. These findings are significant as they strongly suggest that mitochondria and chloroplasts are of prokaryotic origin and nature, supporting the possibility that the eukaryotic cell evolved from the stable incorporation of symbionts from the domain Bacteria. Another striking similarity between mitochondria and bacteria is that they both contain 70S ribosomes and contain a comparable order of genes encoding ribosomal proteins a shown in Figure 4It is only fair that the molecular problems associated with the endosymbiosis hypothesis that have been put forward are considered. Firstly, mitochondria and chloroplasts can only spring from pre- subsisting mitochondria and chloroplasts, having lost many essential genes needed for survival. It has been suggested that this is because of the large timespan that the mitochondria/chloroplasts have co-existed. During this time, systems and genes that were no longer needed were either simply deleted or transferred into the host geno me. Hence, mitochondria and chloroplasts have lost the ability to live independently over time. This supports the endosymbiotic theory as it provides a reason as to why the ancestors of the chloroplasts and mitochondria were able to survive independently whilst chloroplast and mitochondria are unable to do so now. The study of mitochondrial genomes so far has suggested that mitochondrial genomes actually encode less than 70 of the proteins that mitochondria need to function most being encoded by the nuclear genome and targeted to mitochondria using protein import machinery that is specific to this organelle.(7) It has been found that the genome of Reclinomonas contains all the protein-coding genes found in all the sequenced mitochondrial genomes (8)The importance of Figure 5 is that it shows that the mitochondrial genome no longer contains many of the protein-coding genes, and hence, mitochondria are no longer able to live independently. The mitochondrial endosymbiont is believed to have belonged to the proteobacteria since several genes and proteins still encoded by the mitochondrial genome branch in molecular trees among homologues from this group. Interestingly, mitochondrial proteins such as the 60- and 70-kDa cacoethes shock proteins (Hsp60, Hsp70), also branch amongst proteobacterial homologues, but the genes are encoded by the host nuclear genome.(9) This can be explained by a theory called endosymbiotic gene transfer which states that during the course of mitochondrial genome reduction, genes were transferred from the endosymbionts genome to the hosts chromosomes, but the encoded proteins were reimported into the organelle where they originally functioned. (7) This theory is central to the endosymbiotic theory, as it explains the inability of chloroplasts and mitochondria to live independently even though these organelles are believed to have originated from the domain Bacteria. It is also believed that this gene transfer has provided an essential way in which mitochondrial or chloroplast activity can be regulated. The studies of protists raisethe possibility that mitochondria originated at essentiallythe equivalent time as the nuclear component of the eukaryotic cellrather than in a separate, subsequent event. (10) TThis would fit in with the hydrogen hypothesis as described later. A but problem to consider is the extent to which genes were transferred to the cell nucleus. Why did some genes remain in the cytoplasmic organelles? This question has been intercommunicate by the Co-location forRedoxRegulation (CoRR) hypothesis, which states that the location ofgenetic informationincytoplasmicorganellespermits regulation of its expression by the reduction-oxidation(redox) state of itsgene products. Therefore, evolution by natural selection would have favoured mitochondrial or chloroplast cells that had deleted or transferred some genes to the host genome but had kept those that were still beneficial in the regulation of the organ elles activity. (11)Physiological EvidenceEvidence for the endosymbiosis theory can be found in the physiology of mitochondria and chloroplasts. For example, both mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own protein-synthesising machinery which closely resembles that of Bacteria rather than that of Eukaryotes. Ribosome function in mitochondria and chloroplasts are inhibited by the same antibiotics that inhibit ribosome function in free-living bacteria. Hence, it is no surprise that both these organelles contain 70S ribosomes typical of prokaryotic cells, and show 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid gene sequences, a characteristic of certain Bacteria such as Escherichia coli.(1) For example, human mitochondrial ribosomes can be affected by chloramphenicol (an antibiotic used to inhibit protein synthesis), further evidence that mitochondria are likely to be of bacterial origin. Chloramphenicol is a relatively simple molecule containing a nitrobenzene ring trusty for some of the toxicity problems associated with the drugChloramphenicol inhibits protein synthesis due to its high affinity for the large (50S) ribosomal subunit, which when bound to chloramphenicol, blocks the action of peptidyl transferase, preventing peptide bond synthesis. It has also been discovered that chloramphenicol prevents the maturation of the 30S ribosomal subunits, decreasing the number of competent subunits and significantly decreasing the proportion of mitochondrial ribonucleoprotein present as monomers. (12) Also, the antibiotic rifampicin which inhibits the ribonucleic acid polymerase of Bacteria has been found to inhibit the RNA polymerase within bacteria. Proteins of chloroplast or mitochondrion origin, like bacteria, always use N-formylmethionine as their initiating amino acid of their transcript.(13) Mitochondria replicate, like bacteria, only by the process of binary fission inferring that mitochondria did indeed originate from prokaryotes. The completion of the genome sequence of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis, has provided evidence for the origin of chloroplast translocation frame-up. Just as the endosymbiosis theory predicts, abstract of this sequence showed that three key translocation components within chloroplasts, Toc75, Tic22 and Tic20, evolved from existing proteins within the cyanobacterial genome.(14)Mitochondria and chloroplasts have remarkably similar mechanisms by which ATP is produced. These ATP-generating pathways often include electron transport chains and proton pumps, similar to that found in prokaryotic energy production mechanisms.One of the most recent problems with the endosymbiosis theory is found within the physiology of mitochondria. Mounting evidence suggests that key components of the mitochondrial transcription and replication apparatus are derived from the T-odd lineage ofbacteriophagerather than from an -Proteobacterium, as the endosymbiont hypothesis would predict.(15) It has been discovered that three of the essential eleme nts of the replication and transcription apparatus the RNA polymerase, the replicative primase-helicase and the DNA polymerase do not resemble those of eubacteria as predicted by the symbiosis theory, but instead appears to resemble proteins encoded by T-odd bacteriophages. However, this does not disprove the theory of endosymbiosis as it is likely that numerous mitochondrial genes were acquired together from an ancestor of T-odd phage early in the formation of the eukaryotic cell, at the time when the mitochondrial symbiont was incorporated. (15)Morphological EvidenceAnother characteristic that further supports the hypothesis is that mitochondria and chloroplasts contain small amounts of DNA that is different from that of the cell nucleus which is arranged in a covalently closed, circular structure, with no associated histones, typical of Bacteria. Mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes, separated by the inter-membranal space and each with a different composition. Mitochondr ial membranes more closely resemble membranes found in Gram-negative bacteria in terms of lipid composition than eukaryotic membranes. (16) The inner-membrane infoldings in the mitochondria lends more credibility to the endosymbiosis theory as the cristae are adaptations that increase the surface area of oxidative enzymes, evolutionary analogues to the mesosomal membranes of many prokaryotes (16)Further evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts are of a prokaryotic origin is the lack of cholesterol in their membranes. This is significant because it is an essential structural component in many eukaryotic membranes, mainly in mammalian cell membrane, but it almost completely absent amongst prokaryotes.Another problem is that recent genetic compendium of small eukaryotes that lack many characteristics that are associated with eukaryotic cells, most importantly mitochondria, show that they all still retain genes elusive in the synthesis of mitochondrial proteins. In 1983, the taxon Archezoa was proposed to unite this group of odd eukaryotes, and the belief was that these cells had diverged from other eukaryotes before these characteristics evolved and hence represented primitive eukaryotic lineages. Before the recent genetic discovery that shows that these eukaryotes contain genes involved in mitochondrial protein synthesis, molecular work supported their primitive status, as they consistently fell deep into the branches of eukaryotic trees. This recent genetic analysis implies that all these eukaryotes once had mitochondria, suggesting that they evolved after the mitochondrial symbiosis. There is also the question of how the eukaryotic cell arose, including the nature and properties of the cell that acquired mitochondria and later chloroplasts, and how the nuclear membrane was formed which touches upon the compatmentalisation within cells and its importance in the functioning of the eukaryotic cell. (7)Formation of the eukaryotic cellThere have been two hypo theses put forward to explain how the eukaryotic cell arose. One states that eukaryotes started as a nucleus-bearing lineage that later acquired the bacterial ancestor of the mitochondrion and the cyanobacterial ancestor of the chloroplast by the process of endosymbiosis. This nucleated line accordingly diverged into the lineages giving rise to animals and plants. It is thought that the nucleus arose spontaneously in an early cell. One possible cause for the spontaneous formation of the nucleus is that it arose in reception to the increasing genome size of early eukaryotes. (1)The second hypothesis, also known as the hydrogen hypothesis, states that the bacterial ancestor of the mitochondrion was taken up by a member of the Archaea via endosymbiosis, and from this association, the nucleus later emerged, followed by a later acquisition of the cyanobacterial ancestor of the chloroplast. The main difference between these two hypotheses is the position of the mitochondrion relative to the formation of the nucleus in time and hence on the universal phylogenetic tree. The hydrogen hypothesis put forward by William F. Martin and Miklos muller in 1998, proposes that the eukaryotic cell arose from a symbiotic association of an anaerobic, hydrogen dependent, autotrophic archaebacterium (the host) with a hydrogen producing, oxygen consuming eubacterium (the symbiont), which released molecular hydrogen as a waste product of anaerobic heterotrophic metabolism. (17) The dependence of the host upon the molecular hydrogen as an energy source, produced as a waste product by the symbiont is thought to be what lead to the association. In this scenario, the nucleus arose following the formation of this stable association between these two kinds of cells, and genes involved in lipid synthesis were transferred from the symbiont to the host chromosome. This may have lead to the synthesis of bacterial (symbiont) lipids by the host, eventually leading to the creation of an internal membrane system, the endoplasmic reticulum and the early stages of a eukaryotic nucleus. As the size of the host genome increased with time, changes were made to maximise the efficiency of replication and gene expression via the process of evolution. Hence, over time, this kind of cell compartmentalised and sequestered the genetic coding information within a protected membrane away from the cytoplasm. The formation of a mitochondrion-containing nucleated cell line was complete, which then later acquired chloroplasts by endosymbiosis. The hydrogen hypothesis has explains the observation that eukaryotes are of chimeric nature, containing attributes of both Bacteria and Archaea. (1)ConclusionsIn summary, molecular, physiological and morphological evidence can be found to support the endosymbiosis theory put forward by Lynn Margulis. Most compelling of which is the numerous similarities between organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria with prokaryotes, coupled with the inabilit y of the organelles to live independently despite having their own independent DNA due to most of the genes required for the survival of the organelle being stored in the nuclear DNA of the host. The importance of this should not be underestimated, as it does all but prove that the ancestors of mitochondria and chloroplasts were of a prokaryotic origin and thus were once able to live independently. Therefore, this does lend credibility to the endosymbiosis theory as the symbionts that were allegedly incorporated were likely to have been from the domain bacteria, and that something must have occurred which stopped the symbionts being able to live independently, an event which many scientists now believe to be the process of endosymbiotic gene transfer. The hydrogen hypothesis appears to be the likely scenario for how the eukaryotic cell evolved, as it explains the formation of the nucleus as being a response to the growing size of the nuclear genome of the host, which would have maxi mised efficiency of gene expression. Endosymbiosis also explains why the eukaryotic cell appears to be of a chimeric nature containing attributes of Archaea (e.g. similar transcription and translation apparatus) and Bacteria (e.g. contain same type of lipids).

History of Theatre: From Greek to Modern Day

taradiddle of Theatre From Hellenic to modern font DayModern Ameri pile TheatreModern American home has changed a lot since the measure of customsal Grecian Tragedies and Roman Theatrics. Technology changes have changed many a nonher(prenominal) of the different methods that we use to convey artistic styles and themes. Todays field of view of op seasontions has many contrasting and diverse styles it contains both higher levels of musical and acting talent. The Broadway sensation Wicked for instance, is a great example of modern business firm. It contains a in truth interesting script, and the theme of the story is a combination of waggery and tragedy. Technology changes in costuming, prop building and even acting has changed everything about the study. Wicked to a fault took on an international presence, unlike past plain, which was isolated to regional fulfilances and even seasonal performances, Wicked has been shown on every continent on the planet. Even though there have been a lot of changes in modern family, the core components of modern home argon still the same as they have been in the past. Although theatre has evolved a lot from historical theatre, many of the same themes, styles and developments are still consistent with the past.Theatre had its origins in the earliest parts of human history. in the beginning there was actual theatre and actors, the first form of theatre can be found in the development of dance culture. Dances were originally performed in memorial of major events, celebrations and religious ceremonies. At first, they were very informal affairs with little practice, but dancing as rituals evolved into very sophisticated forms of artistry by the 3000B BCE era. The first off reason that dancing occurred was for religious rituals. The theme of religion that first originated in ritualistic dancing will continue in theatre for more than quadruplet thousand years. Famed critic Ellis Havelock explains, Religious dances, it may be observed, are sometimes ecstatic, sometimes pantomimic. . . . Pantomimic dances, with their effort to heighten inwrought expression and to imitate natural process, bring the dancers into the divine sphere of creation and enable them to assist vicariously in the energy of the gods. The dance thus becomes the presentation of a divine drama. As dancing became more sophisticated with time, and they were eventually performed at every level, especially before major events much(prenominal) as wars, seasonal changes, or religious celebrations. Eventually, rituals evolved only into sophisticated displays that took on themes and styles, this was the first development of drama as we know it (Bellinger, 1927). The evolution of dance from tribal and informal affairs into very complicated rituals can be seen in Persian and Asian early civilizations, they exhibited the roughly complex form of evolving dance culture.Despite the early development of dance, there are many similarities to modern theatre. First, ritualistic dances had heavy religious overtones and only performed during key periods of time. This was the foundation of Greek theatre, which directly evolved from these tribal dances and dramas. A nonher similarity is the development of story-telling through theatre, as dances took on more sophistication they took on story-lines, complicated plots and a reciprocal theme that is carried in the dance. The emerging apprehension of stories through dance was very primal because it led to the creation of theatre. This type of dance culture evolved slowly into a new type of theatre during the Greek era, this era saw the rise of theatre, not as a religious experience, but preferably as an art form.Greek theatre is where modern theatre draws its roots from. It is the start of the Western tradition of theatre because not only did the Greeks enjoy theatre as part of religion, but also saw it as an art form. The first steps towards Greek theatre occurred when dance s and rituals to the ancient Greek God of Win, Dionysus, became more and more sophisticated. The biggest change was the addition of style and theme that led to the development of plays, where spoken word was utilize rather than only song and dance.Formal Greek theatre is renowned for its style, themes and corporeal constructions. Every element of modern theatre can be traced to Greek theatre. The great Greek playwrights were very interested in the development of theme in their plays. They were the first to create category of themes suited for different plays. These themes included tragedy, comedy and satire. Tragedy was the most common element in Greek plays, in particular, the biggest development that the Greeks made as in the judgment of a Tragic hero, or a hero who is ultimately defeated by their hubris (Bates, 45-47). Stylistically, Greek plays had a very specific structure they were created primarily to be played once, therefore, they were often represent in a series of fou r plays. With the first tierce being tragedies and the final one a comedy that tied them all together to salvage the mood of the crowd. The development of style and a system for organizing plays along scenes and acts was very important and is still something that persists in modern theatre. Finally, the Greeks were also known for their actual physical constructions of theatre areas. Unlike, the previous era where rituals were performs at religious centers and in preparation for battles, the Greeks created amphitheaters within every city where they would hold yearly plays and contests. Amphitheaters were large central stages that are surrounded by raised stairs for seating. They became the popular form of theatre construction for the next thousand years.Greek theatre can be seen as the roots of all modern theatre because they added many of the different core elements that we see in theatre today. They were also the first to have professional actors and playwrights rather than relig ious figures. Greek theatre started the trend of having professional performers by introducing the actors guild where they trained very skilled troupes that would blend in around Greece and perform for cities and rural areas along the way.Following Greek theatre, the next evolution of theatre occurred during the Roman era. Roman theatre was not extremely original because it took many of the elements of Greek theatre and made it their own. Many Roman plays were adaptations or even direct copies of Greek plays, so much of their architecture, styles and themes were the same. The biggest difference between the two is that Romans made theatre much more secular. Their plays did not focus on religion nearly as much as Greek theatre, which meant that they were more focused on the aesthetics and art of theatre. This led to the extended use of props to communicate different meaning. For instance, a black wig was used to mean that a character is a very young man. The use of props and elabora te backgrounds surrounding theatre made them more attractive and accessible to the masses. This meant that theatre was one of the main forms of pastime during the Roman era. Because Roman theatre was less sophisticated than Greek theatre in many ways, and it did not have a religious focus, they performed many more comedies than tragedies. Overall Roman theatre is important to the history of theatre because it represented easier access to the arts and a secular approach to theatre.Theatre during the medieval era however, took a very large step backwards. While the Roman era expanded on the Greek era, the Medieval or Dark Ages represented a period of chaos and seclusion. The fall of the Roman Empire meant that Europe became less focused in the cities and more agrarian. Without a large audience to appeal to, the concept of theatre almost died completely. During this era, theatre and plays were exclusively religious in nature and were performed by monks and priests as they traveled aro und the country. The only type of theatre that was ready(prenominal) related strongly to the Bible. Rather than having props or physical stages, plays were performed by traveling monks as they moved from village to village, there ewes no formal stage areas. From a style perspective, plays were performed as if they were direct translations of the Bible and all of the different scenes and acts corresponded with Biblical stories. One of the most famous plays of this era was the English Cycles, which portrayed the own and death of Jesus. Theatre during this era took a very large step backwards from the advances made from the Greek and Roman era, however, the majority of theatre development did not die, but they were not explored until much later during the Renaissance revival period.The era that had the most influence on modern theatre was the Renaissance era. American theatre draws most of its influences from this era because it closely relates to the style, themes and structures t hat we are use to in our modern era. The Renaissance was a period of revival that took place across Europe as changes in technology, art, science and all aspects of life took place at the same time. There were many different theatre movements during this era the two largest of these was the Spanish theatre movement and the English theatre movement. In Spain, theatre evolved during the Golden Age of around 1550 to 1700 when Spain was the most powerful country on the planet. During this era, theatre became divided into three areas, religious, comedic and musical.The greatest development in theatre occurred in England during this period, English theatre is best known for the Elizabethan period, where theatre as an art form flourished. English theatre is known for two areas, theatre construction and its famous actors and writers. English theatre was the first to construct very large theatres solely for the use of plays and musicals. These hubs were where the most famous plays were perfo rmed, and the most famous of these was the Globe theatre where Shakespeare held his performances. The construction of these theatres was very influential to modern theatre because it resulted in the development of standalone arenas for performances. This was a much bigger step towards more stylized displays, better props and most importantly, permanent actors. Elizabethan era produced the most well known and famous writer, William Shakespeare. During Shakespeares career, he almost single handedly propelled theatre to the top of entertainment and national attention. His Globe theatre would attract royal donors and he was sponsored by the Queen. During this era, English theatre took theatre to new heights of success and as a result, many of todays conventions are adopted from this era. Even today Shakespeares plays are reproduced in theatres around the country. The neo-classic era was known for using very formal decorum around each performance, where every part of the display had to b e picture perfect.Modern theatre is very hard to explain unless we can see it through the lenses of history. American theatre is very diverse, it contains many different styles of theatre that includes traditional theatre in the form of Shakespeare plays, but it also extends out as far as Cirque De Soleil and the modern Broadway musicals. All of these different forms of theatre have common similarities however that were inherited from the past. One of the major developments of modern theatre is the location of a central theatre Mecca in New York City. The development of Broadway, especially in the early 1900s made it one of the most prominent areas of theatre culture in the world. Broadway brought out a new culture to theatre because it created theatre as art to a new level it also brought social distinction between classes.The theme that is consistent in American theatre is Realism, a concept that was develop as early as the Roman era, but only became mainstream during the Renaiss ance and beyond. Realism is theatre that depicts real life, both its pitfalls and its brutality. This is best seen in a classic American play, The Death of a Salesman. Which showed how the American dream can sometimes be only a dream for the majority of the American bosom class? Theatre has now diversified to many different thematic focuses however. Musicals, theatre, and classical theatre are very different each with their own Mecca and focus. some other major development is in the educational system for actors and writers, within modern theatre it is no longer a guild system as in previous generations and eras, but now there are formal schools and colleges that teaches the art of acting and theatre. Actors and writers formed their own guilds that were able to leverage their talents to help increase theatre within the US in general. As technology increased, theatre is now more accessible than ever, stages are much easier to construct and skilled actors and writers can travel the w orld in order to stage their performances. Technology has also made it much easier to build props, so performances today are becoming more down-to-earth with better props and better technology.Theatre has a very strong place in our society because of its culture and history. However, even with the success of theatre it has changed because of the outlet of television and radio, which compete with theatre in terms of entertainment venues. As a result, theatre has become a more upper class or sophisticated enjoyment, which has led to the emphasis on musicals. In the new millennium, theatre will change even more, this can already be seen with the new types of musicals such as Wicked that are being performed on Broadway, as well as new theatre troupes like Cirque De Soleil which are revolutionizing how we see theatre and theatrical performances. In both cases, theatre is very much alive, and many of the elements of todays theatre can be seen throughout history. For thousands of years, theatre has developed and become a very important part of our society. Therefore it only makes sense that it will continue to be more important as time goes on.ReferencesLectures on Dramatic Art and Literature. August Wilhelm Schlegel. London George Bell Sons, 1904. pp. 200-12Manual of Greek Literature from the Earliest Authentic Periods to the Close of the Byzantine Era. Charles Anthon. New York harper Brothers, 1853. pp. 160-174.The Drama Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, vol. 1. Ed. Alfred Bates. London Historical Publishing Company, 1906.A Short History of the Drama. Martha Fletcher Bellinger. New York Henry Holt and Company, 1927.A Short History of the Drama. Martha Fletcher Bellinger. New York Henry Holt and Company, 1927. pp. 3-8.Book Title The Dance of Life. Contributors Havelock Ellis author. Publisher Houghton Mifflin. Place of Publication Boston. Publication Year 1923. Page Number iii.

The Foundations Of Royal Crown Cola

The Foundations Of majestic poll boobIn 1904, a young druggist graduate from Georgia began making soft drinks besides from his family business of bakery wholesale. What he k newfangled at that time was little experiments bequeath farm and lead him to cap equal to(p) a huge soft drink comp any(prenominal) that is still in work today.History In 1905, purplish peak boob introduced its frontmost production names as Chero grass and magnificent Crown Ginger Ale, olympian Crown Root Beer and strawberry. In 1925, imperial CROWN boob Company renamed as Chero- sess and crop uped name Nehi Corporation due to its coloured and flavoured drinks. Afterward a Chemist Rufus Kamm reformulated Chero-cola in 1934 and named it Royal Crown grass. In 1950s the mixture of Moonpies and Royal Crown cola became famous as the working mans lunch in the South America. Royal Crown cola is the premiere to sell drink in aluminum can.In 1958 Royal Crown boob Company launched the first diet Rite an d diet cola and caffeine-free cola, Royal Crown 100 in middle of 1980s. munificent CROWN cola introduced Royal Crown Draft cola in 1990 as a premium cola. Later on company the likewise introduced Cherry ROYAL CROWN, a Flavor of Cherry to stand beside the Pepsi Wild Cherry and Coca Cola Cherry.Acquisition of Royal Crown Cola was happened in 2000 by Cadbury Schweppes plc. In 2001 Cott Beverages of Canada purchased Royal Crown Royal Crown Cola all international brands and get downed operating as Royal Crown Cola International.ROYAL CROWN Cola in PakistanRoyal Crown is working in Pakistan since 1970s. It launched numerous brands there like Dr. Pepper, Salute Orange and Salute cola and so on In the start Royal Crown cola sales were considerably dear(p). It made profits since 1990 but after that its position in the food grocery store started turn away gradually. Now at this era ROYAL CROWN cola is having no values for the stack of Pakistan and is going in loses so we can say that Royal Crown cola is badly flopped and failed in Pakistan.Royal Crown Cola ProductsRoyal Crown ColaCherry ROYAL CROWN coladieting Rite ColaROYAL CROWNRoyal Crown Draft ColaKickDiet ROYAL CROWN colaSituation abstractIndustry AnalysisStrengthCold drink market in Pakistan is having a great time right away days. Market of drink is preceding(prenominal) in terms of volume and income of this labor. Multinational companies have been providing quality products of carbonated drink to the consumers over the years according to the norms and values of an Islamic country. So it is enhancing the growth of sparing of Pakistan in terms of soft drinks.WeaknessCold drink market faces a fall down in full summer days as people starts using the traditional drinks like Rooh Afza, Jam-e-Shirin, Sandalwood etc which are mettlesomely appreciated by the Pakistani people. In rural areas especially these drinks are go ford precise some(prenominal).Opport social unityBeverages industry is growing day by day in Pakistan as the new comers like Gourmet Bakers made a huge entre in market but it is only in Lahore city in spite of this Bakery is making profits by trim the sales of Pepsi and nose candy because of its cheap prices. So government is encouraging the new comers to come in the market.ThreatsHealth and hygiene awareness among Pakistani is becoming more than so they elect to drink fruit juices products over the carbonated drink. The main creator for this awareness is the media who has started campaigns to kick in the people realize some the fruit products and benefits.Royal Crown Cola SWOT AnalysisStrengthIn Pakistan the strength of this cola is its cheap prices.Its operating worldwide for more than 100 years.WeaknessesInternational suits for law.Low Advertisement.Budget for onward motion is in addition so low.OpportunitiesBuilding equity for its brands.Hot weather in PakistanProduction of more suitable products to satisfy consumer unavoidablenesssRe entrancew ay in new marketThreatsVery strong competitors in the market like Pepsi and CokeMore competitors are looking to enter in the marketGovt. Policies mellowed tax rate on beveragesPESTLE AnalysisPolitical FactorInfect Pakistan is a democratic country but political condition now days is very worst. Investment in private sector is equal to none. Tax is levied heavily on beverages industry. Certain ratio of tax goes directly to the bet of President of Pakistan. Trade agreement is supported but there are also strict restrictions following these. There is no regulation in the party favour of the labour community. They are not even paid equivalent to their work.Economical FactorIt is a second largest element of PESTLE analysis. It involves economy conditions, inflation rate, economic consumption level, spending power etc. In Pakistan unemployment is up above the sky. People are searching for jobs even after getting 16-18 years of education. Unemployment level reduces the purchasing power of consumers and in the end economy starts declining. The big threat of Royal Crown Cola re launch in Pakistan is what prices they batch to get the vigilance of people in limited profaneing power.Social FactorROYAL CROWN was first launched in Pakistan by economizeing a religious and fond status of Pakistani people and it worked. They offered low quantity of gas in it. Current situation is that media is also on top of the list so if ROYAL CROWN cola re launches in Pakistan then advertising campaign could be fall out on high level. So ROYAL CROWN should be able to offer those products which aims to benefit people lifestyle and behaviour. If it doesnt then the re launching of this organization go away be in vain in one case once more.technical FactorThe current era is running in clustering of pace. Everybody wants to leave the otherwise person back. Technological changes aims to get the instant results and it does happen. Technology is all round the quick and accurate outcom es. Research and development department of Pakistan is not less than the others. ROYAL CROWN should launch the product by keeping in imagine the technological changes and development.Legal FactorsLegal factors include trading policies, regulatory bodies, future legislation changes etc. So Royal Crown Cola must keep all the points in headway to re launch their product in Pakistan.Environmental FactorsRoyal Crown Cola production industries should be in such areas where people cant get affected by pollution. There should be rules relating to the recycling of tin bottles and other materials used by the company.Porters flipper forces ModelApplying five forces to the beverages industry of Pakistan allows us to create a view of potential attractiveness in the sense of profitability in the link up industry.Bargaining Power of BuyersThe buyers of this industry are in extremely large numbers and buyers want to purchase this industrys products on relatively low prices, impulse, and conve nience basis so making is proficient for the industry.Bargaining power of SuppliersIn beverages industry most of the raw material is used in which there are no specialized people of such commodities like sugar, syrup, glass, plastic, tins and water etc so bargaining power of the supplier is high because shifting to another company halts a time and initially there leave also be a bargaining of prices. When the suppliers are not specialized then losing them is not a big publicize for the organizations.Threat of New EntrantsIn this industry the threat of new entrants is relatively low because it needs a huge investment and specially when the giants like pepsi and coca cola are in the market. It is also very difficult to set up industries for bottling plant specially for new entrants.Threats of SubstituteThreat of substitutes in this industry is high whether it comes to the health issue or some other issues. People can move easily from one company to others because they have choices if company of their choice is not offering good products in terms of health, quality and money.Rivalry among existing playersIn Pakistan market is heavily dominated by to giants of beverages industry Pepsi and Coca Cola with a cover of 75% and 18% relatively leaving less room for others but Royal Crown Cola is an existing industry still they can nurse profits by making it more attractive for the nodes.Objective SettingIt is very important to set the objective for every company when starting anything new or making the changes. Royal Crown Cola is already in phase of declining in Pakistan so it should set SMART objectives for its re launch and survival. repre directation StatementOur mission is to be the leading manufacturer and distributor of juices, dairy and related food products that best satisfy the growing needs of the nodes.Specific Royal Crown Cola should make specific goals to launch new products. Their goals must be according to the current position of the market of the ir product and and what the company wants to give. measured macrocosm specific to the point company should be able to measure whether it is working according to the plan or not.Attainable after that they should analyze whether the goals they set are achievable or not.Realistic it means that the goals should not be as strict that if it is not making profit that it cannot be changed. Goals must be flexible so they could be changed when not giving output.Time bound Royal Crown Cola should set a time frame to achieve their specific goal. They should set goals for limited time but not for longer time. Form short objectives and work on and increase the level gradually. scheme festeringGrowth schemeStrategies are the ways to achieve the stated objectives of the organizations. There are two types of strategies which are Growth Strategy and competitive dodging.Growth Strategy includesAnsoff matrixBCG matrixGap AnalysisGE matrixSelection of Growth Strategy for Royal Crown ColaAs we analy zed from the above situation of Royal Crown Cola position in the market the strategy which is most favorable is Ansoff matrix.Market penetrationRoyal Crown Cola should sell their products to its existing users more by convincing them. They should also make such an advertisement to attract the new or non user of their product to use it. Market penetration also includes attracting the customer from the competitors and it can only happen by giving consumers such benefits which they are not provided by the competitors like discounts, buy 2 get 1 for half price, BOGOF etc. by doing market penetration Royal Crown Cola can achieve its objectives quiet effectively because they dont have enough customers so they need to penetrate the market.Market DevelopmentRoyal Crown Cola can make a development in their market like introducing in some new areas and new users by divisioning the products for distinguishable age and gender. By doing this people bequeath attract to the product and they wi ll buy more.Product DevelopmentRoyal Crown Cola should make some new products to let the customer now that we are offering something polar comparing to our competitors. This could be done by having a look at the competitive favour of the competitors products.DiversificationInfect it is a take chancesy development and RC is not in the position to take more risk but they should do it in such a manner where there is less chance of risk of failure. Because when the market will be new then only the advertisement works and they should think damn seriously about the advertisement which is the main reason of their declining sales and failure.Competitive StrategyCompetitive strategy includes further 3 strategies which are Cost Leadership Strategy. Differentiation Strategy, Focus Strategy. For Royal Crown Cola the best strategy will be Focus Strategy.Focus StrategyFocus strategy relates to the narrow competition in industry. In this strategy Royal Crown Cola will make the segments in indus try. It involves two variants, Cost Focus and Differentiation Focus.In cost focus Royal Crown Cola will produce low cost products but with effective quality as compare to the other competitors and try to attract the customers with the low cost products. As the purchase power of people is very low in Pakistan now days due to economic crisis so it will be huge advantage for Royal Crown Cola.In differentiation strategy Royal Crown Cola should seek a difference of their product in their targeted segment. They can enhance their segmentation but dont make huge segmentation just start from a little one.Tactics for achievement of strategiesTactics normally includes the 7 Ps which are as followProductPricePlacePromotionPeopleProcessPhysical evidenceProductRoyal Crown Cola no doubt is an international brand working for more than 100 years but due to some reasons it failed in Pakistan so new they should need to develop a new product with meet the requirements of the consumer. To develop a new product there should be an idea which can be taken by the survey of asking to customers, employees and other stake holders. Then form all the ideas and select the best one.Product stage of Royal Crown ColaPeople already know about the name because people have used it before. At initial stage there will be soaring cost of productionSlow Growth in terms of salesTake time to find acceptanceRoyal Crown Cola is also in loss now days so they should provide people with great taste and quality.Gradually the product starts making profits and grows sharply. Then the unit cost will decrease, people ask for more etc.BrandingPeople dont buy products they buy brands. Keeping this in view Royal Crown Cola brand should be attractive in terms of logo, symbol and slogan which must be different from others.The slogan which I suggest isSssshhhh.Comin again with new style and tasteLogoBranding StrategyRoyal Crown Cola is an international brand so its strategy will be own label branding.Style and Design When it comes to the design and style of the product then it must be full of attraction and acceptance of people. incasePackaging of Royal Crown Cola should represent protection, advertisement, informative.The comparison of the product among giants is as followRoyal Crown ColaPepsi ColaCoca ColaNo Such ProductNo Such ProductThe comparison above is that Royal Crown cola should produce more products which its competitors are offering. RC should launch its mineral water in Pakistan to get the attraction of the people. They launch it with their own label attractive branding. Packaging of the product must be protected, informative, convenience.PricePricing strategy for Royal Crown Cola should be market penetration strategy. In which Royal Crown Cola offer cheap prices as compare to other competitors to get the attention of the customers and afterwards increasing the prices. This strategy will also discourage the new entrants.Royal Crown cola pricing strategy will be competition based str ategy because Royal Crown Cola must offer fewer prices from its competitors to get the attention of customers. And for new products the strategy will be market penetration because by offering low prices people will come to buy. There should be incentives given to the retailers like chillers, tours on tautologic buying etc. different offers must be offered on special occasions like Ramadan and Eid.Royal Crown Cola should use the push strategy for their product by using different promotional tactics and through media. Distribution will be divided according to the number of areas and the nature of customer according to the literacy rate. Because if the company offers online buying than it would not be affective in rural areas of Pakistan. Representative of the company should directly go the retailers to offer them facilities like bonuses and incentives. In Lahore they should try to ask international Royal Crown Cola to give them franchise in a tax free zone and provide plants for two glass and PET bottles.Distribution StrategyDistribution strategy which I suggest for RC is Intensive distribution because beverages are the FMCGs and these types of products need more outlets as much possible.PromotionPromotion is the main reason of Royal Crown Cola failure in Pakistan. They did not make it well so the promotions strategies for re launching must be according to the market.Objectives of the promotion can be achieved by DRIPE Model.D iffrentiate = analyze the Pepsi and Coke Competitive advantage and create a difference.R emind = surveying the customers who have used RC and reminding them about the product.I nform = offering the products to new customers who have not used the rc products before.P ersuade = give the benefits to customers to convince them like reducing the prices.E ngage = offering such prices and quality to maintain a long term relation with customers.Promotion ToolsAdvertisingAIDA model is an affective model for announceA wareness = making television commercials, bill boards, mediaI nterst = adding fun to commercialsD esire = creating a desire to buy product like Red Bull when customer wants to refresh.A ction = leave the home to purchase productAdvertising MediaBroadcasting on tv and radio which will increase the awareness among peopleCreating advertisement short messages service by collecting the data from cellular companies and offering customers to buy the productBill boards and posters will be applied on high ways, centre points, on buses and cabs.On internet little ads will be displayed to tell the product informationOffering free cards with famous magazines for first month.Sales PromotionFree vouchers will be given to retailers for the customers who buy in quantity for dine in like in McDonalds, KFC and other restaurants.For first month there will be an offer for regular pack to get 3 cans for the price of 2.Free samples will be distributed in markets and in grounds on mobile vans and opening outlets outside the public p arks.Price discounts will be given to customers.Direct MarketingSMS will be sent to customers taking data base from cellular companiesDirect mails will be sent to customersPersonal SellingMarketing managers will go directly to retailers and take the orders because it will save the time of involving whole sellers.Appointing persons to go house to house and offer attractive prices to households if they buy huge quantity.Offers will be made to customers to maintain them for a long time with the company.PeopleWhen it comes to the selection of employees Royal Crown Cola must appoint people with professional attitude, behavior and skills towards the operation of Royal Crown Cola in all fields. There should be careful job selection and policies of selection. Because the employees are the main stake holders of any organization.ProcessRc should make company policies affective. Rc brands must do a joint venture with public place like cinemas, parks, grounds etc to sell on Rc brands there. It will need a huge amount but it is beneficial for the company.Physical EvidenceRoyal Crown Colas physical evidence must be something like attractive so the people get attracted towards the product. Logos must create colorful scheme, company vehicles could be run to make the people know something new. Company should distribute things like stationary, uniforms, equipments with RC logos.Total18,600,000 Rs.The method which I suggest to RC is all you can afford. Because RC Cola is re launching in Pakistan it still has a risk of lost so they dont need to apply more resources according to their worth.Controlling and MonitoringAs soon as the selling plan gets started the next ob of management is to go for and monitor what is going on now. Is everything according to the plan if it is not than taking corrective actions to sort the problem out?SegmentationWe are going to segment the Royal Crown Cola market in 2 different segmentsDemographic FactorAge 10 25 yearsClass upper berth, Upper Mid dle, MiddleGender Male and FemaleGeographic FactorCountry PakistanCity LahoreProvince PunjabTargetingWe are going to apply differentiated targeting in which different products will be offered according to the customer targeted and segmented.Critical ReflectionWhy Royal Crown failed in PakistanROYAL CROWN cola launched in Pakistan when there were no big competitors like coca cola and Pepsi. ROYAL CROWN cola earned lot of money in that tenure. But when Pepsi co. came into Pakistan than it started decline. Because Pepsi co. made a huge difference in terms of advertisement and promotion of their product. They launched it and then captured the whole market in a short time. Launching of Pepsi didnt make a huge difference but Coca Cola made it a huge one when it started working in Pakistan. This was the tenure when ROYAL CROWN cola started decline in real meaning. After the launching of these two giants in market ROYAL CROWN cola fall likes the tomb of cards. In started people used ROYAL C ROWN a lot because they enjoyed this drink but Pepsi cola and Coca cola made a huge difference in terms of advertising and promotion only. They got the people attention towards their brand so people attracted towards them and left ROYAL CROWN brand. Any product is all about the presentation what it looks like what it is offering by its look. Pepsi cola and Coca Cola presentation was so good and they captured the market and left Royal Crown Cola a far idler. In spite of the fact that Royal Crown is declining in Pakistan infect it is ignored by the people so they need to be re launch it with some different looks and attraction. They have the potential to come in the market strongly. It takes time but it happens. The only difference which I mat up was only the advertising and promotion. So if they want to re launch the product then they should make a difference in terms of advertisement.At the start of module I did not know it would be as interesting as I thought it before. I have a finance backdrop but after studying marketing management Ive chosen marketing electives in my next semester. I experienced a lot of things in the start till the end of the whole cut like how things go in market, how company market its product, how they apply marketing techniques, what are their goals and how they going to work on it etc. I think its all about marketing in our environment.The main thing which I learnt by this module is that Ive come to know the strategies related to marketing the product and running them in an efficient way so they get going an making profits.I can now rede how market, marketing mix and how to plan for any new and existing products which are available or about to launch in the market and specially the products which are in declining stage.Marketing gives us experience what the customers expecting from you and what u should do to satisfy their needs infect more than they want. Its now, not difficult for me to understand the models in terms of put them into the practical life that I will be having in future, marketing has a lot to do with the businesses, these concepts which were taught to me in this course are worth more than enough for me to understand the factors which different businesses apply to gain the advantages of marketing and to gain the sophistication of their businesses.The experience was very good objet dart I was learning this course of marketing management as it was taught to me very deeply and very finely, which helped me to get the idea of everything include in this course. It was though not as smooth as it seemed to get everything in my mind for the subject that is very vast in it, but once when it was started I got the idea that it is going to be very recyclable and beneficial for me, in present and also in future. This is the once in a life time experience I believe which you get once in your life and you get advantages of it the whole life.This was the experience which is I dont think I will forget e ver, as it was very interestingly taught and it had a lot much practical knowledge which enhanced my knowledge as well as my skills to put the respective information in my practical life, it is now easy to talk to anyone related to the market without any hesitation and with a lot of knowledge and skills to show now what I am.I have done many things in marketing, including marketing mix of products, marketing plan, and other many models of marketing such as Ansoffs model, PESTLE analysis, situational analysis and many other analyses which have been taught to me during the lectures. In the starting it was about marketing itself as an introduction, but when it went on and on, it showed up with many models and different concepts related t other market, what is happening in the market and what is the market all about, it is not easy to just go to visit the market and get what you want, a proper time is required for this kind of research, while I can easily say that during these few weeks I have learnt the experience of many months which is not easy to gain, it is actually something that you earn, it is not something that you gain without any struggle, though I also tried a lot to understand the concepts which were not easy for me to understand. Btu as the time passed I became used to of these teachings and then I found that it was not as difficult as I presumed in the beginning, it was a lot more easy and easy to understand, easy to read, easy to keep and of course easy to apply whenever needed, just a little research is required inc on text of the markets current condition at that time.Previously I was not aware of many concepts and things which has been taught to me now, I was lacking in many things, when I was studying this concept I found that I left behind many things which are really required by the market now, which have become a necessity for the marketing activities of any company and which are the substance issues of any company for the activities which are related to the marketing activities and marketing plans of a company or a business. All the things which were not known by me in many contexts such as in the context of learning, in the context of skills, in the context of knowledge and in the context of practical application of these concepts, knowledge, skills and lay these all in together.I am definitely have learned too much to understand everything that has been taught in this course, I can talk to anyone regarding these concepts and I am more acknowledged than I was previously. I have changed a lot, I am more practical now, I am now able to understand which company is using what marketing strategies and what plans and implementations, it is now easy to watch the market with my perspective now, and also how market is running, how it was in the past and how it may run in the future. I am able to judge and conclude different perspectives regarding different companies and regarding the market as a whole, it is not much diffi cult to understand what the market is all about.I was feeling like Im being renewed, I was getting something that I was not able to think about the benefits, when the learning outcomes were undergoing, I was undergoing too, I was undergoing the process of getting acknowledged and of course it was great, it was feeling very good, when you get something new in yourself you feel new, I was feeling like I am having what I actually needed and what I have not learned so far. It was feeling as I am now being honored by having the knowledge that not everyone has.As I went through this learning process, I found that many new questions are generating in my mind about the market, these questions are related to different things related to the market, such as, marketing concepts which are used in different companies present in different segments of the market and which are present for different segments of the market, not just nationally but globally, marketing concepts are he same all over the globe, just the time and the requirements of the people of different countries and regions.

Aaron Copeland :: Biography

Aaron Copland was born on November 14, 1900 in new(a) York City. His symphonyal works ranged from ballet and orchestral music to choral music and plastic film scores. For the better part of four decades Aaron Copland was considered the premier composer of 20th Century American Music. Copland learned to play piano from an older sister. By the time he was cardinal he had decided to become a composer. His first composing steps included a correspondence course. In 1921 Copland traveled to Paris to attend the newly founded music school for Americans at Fontainebleau. He was the first American student of the brilliant teacher, Nadia Boulanger. aft(prenominal) three years in Paris he returned to New York with his first major commission, writing an organ concerto. His "Symphony for Organ and Orchestra" premiered in at Carnegie Hall in 1925. Coplands growth as a composer followed the important trends of his time. After his return from Paris he worked with jazz rhythms in his &q uotPiano Concerto" (1926). In 1936 he changed his musical style toward a simpler sound. He thought this made his music more meaningful to the music listeners being created by radio and the movies. His most famous works during this period were based on American folk erudition including "Billy the Kid" (1938), "Rodeo" (1942), Fanfare for the Common Man (1942), and Appalachian Spring (1944). Other works during this period were a series of movie scores including "Of Mice and workforce" (1938) and "The Heiress" (1948). After 1970 Copland stopped composing, though he continued to lecture and conduct through the mid-1980s.

BIG Brother and the Internet Essay -- Web security Internet Essays

BIG Brother and the earnings The Internet invention has most certainly opened many doors for a faster, more efficient educational medium. One can find information about almost everything, discussions range from daily issues to highly academic and scientific issues. It has and then helped this generation to be much more productive and efficient. The vast web of electronic media that connects us is heralding a new age of communications. New digital networks suffer a tremendous potential to empower individuals in an ever-overpowering world. However, these communications networks are also the subject of significant debate concerning governance and jurisdiction. part the free fall of information is generally a positive thing, serious problems arise when information flows free, problems such as How to protect children and undesiring adults from exposure to sexually explicit or potentially offensive materials? How to protect intellectual property rights? How to determine which countrys laws have jurisdiction over a medium that is nowhere and everywhere at the same time? How best to protect privacy and protect our values? How to ensure that legislators, access providers, and network users do not stifle disagreeable speech? While well-established legal principles and cultural norms give structure and coherence to uses of conventional media, the new digital media do not fit so easily into existing frameworks. The Internet might be helpful in making lives much more dynamic and resourceful, but we also hear hundreds of horror stories related to the Internet. Some people argue that it also has the potential of destroying our generation by exposing it to pornography and other indecent material readily available on the Intern... ...plamem.html (March 28, 97).4 Biskupic Joan Exploring the Frontiers of Internal freedom (March 17, 97) Document. <http//washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/wplate/1997-03/17/037l-03179- idx.html (April7, 97).5 Burton, Scott The Indecency of th e Communication Decency Act Document.<http//www.isc.rit.edu/sab0276/stv/cda.html (March 28, 97).6 Fena, Lori , and Godwin, Mike. Your Constitutional Rights have been Sacrificed for PoliticalExpediency <httpwww.eff.org/pub/Alerts/cda_020296_eff.statement (March 28, 97).7 Press Release. Reno v. ACLU The Road to the Supreme Court (October 31, 96) Document. <http//www.aclu.org/ watchword/n103196b.html (March 28, 97).8 Webmaster. ClariNet files suit over Communication Decency Law Document. <http//www.clarinet.com/suitepage.html (March 28, 97).